The Costs of Adaptation in Punakha, Bhutan: Loss And Damage Associated With Changing Monsoon Patterns

People in the Himalayan region are confronted with changes due to global warming. Glaciers are melting, leading to changing river flows and an increased risk of floods (Richardson and Reynolds, 2000; IPCC, 2007; NRC, 2012). In addition, several recent studies have been pointing at changing rainfall patterns in the region (e.g., Ashfaq et al., 2009; Bhutiyani et al., 2010; Macchi et al., 2011). Although there is much uncertainty about the direction of these changes and their local manifestations, it is expected that altering patterns of precipitation will affect local livelihoods, particularly small-scale farmers. In Bhutan, shifting rainfall patterns will have direct consequences for the majority of the population, as most Bhutanese are subsistence-oriented farmers depending almost entirely on the South Asian monsoon rains for the cultivation of rice (NEC, 2011).